More Questions Than Answers
The subject of beauty that I am going to discuss here is confounding to say the least because it is paradoxical. What makes an object—whether it is a piece of art or the Nature itself—or a human being beautiful? According to whose standards? If it is beautiful why some see it as subversive? Why can it not stand on its own merit or right? Who judges beauty and who uses beauty to subvert and for what reason? As it can be seen, there are more questions than answers. Beauty, as they say, is in the eyes of the beholder, hence by its nature it can be subjective. Many Eastern and Western philosophers have written theories about art and beauty. This much I know that I will not talk about them. But I do not know from which vantage point I should dive into the deep waters of the confounding subject of beauty. If I want to discuss it exhaustively, I, as an author, must take many aspects and facets of beauty including color, proportions, balance, harmony, symmetry, stance, demeanor, character, eroticism, sense of mystery, class structure, etc. into consideration. However, for a short article here, I must be selective with the examples and brief.
Where Do I Begin, Then?
The annals of history are full of incidents that young and beautiful women—usually unmarried girls—were abducted and taken as slaves by the rich and the powerful, such as rulers. We have heard and read the exploits of the ruthless Mongol and Ottoman rulers who kept harems composed of many hundreds of young and beautiful women from different cultures around the ancient world[1] (figs. 1, 2 and 3) . Mughal rulers of India were no exception; they too kept harems, although not as large as those of the Mongols or the Ottomans. Taking young girls by force and keeping them captive was an act of brutality, no doubt. It shows the exertion of superior power over the weak whose voices did not match nor could even be heard above that of the oppressors.
The Inquisition
The Inquisition was such a method to keep those women, who did not conform to the rules of the Church, under subjugation. Although originally it was used by the Clergy of the Catholic Church to suppress what they believed to be heresy by excommunicating a heretical member from the Church, it was also used to punish women who were suspected of practicing witchcraft. Unthinkable methods of cruelty were applied to exact admissions of guilt by forced confessions. Once the woman on trial has confessed under great duress, the punishment that followed was usually death by burning at the stake.
The trial was presided by the church clergy members who were always older men. During the trial, the body of the accused was probed for signs of the Devil. Since no one knew what the signs of the Devil were, the Church Fathers were left to their own wild interpretations. To find any evidence of the Devil, they would feel every part of the woman, including the private parts, using their hands and instruments that were often painful. For a complete history of the Inquisition, readers should consult Charles Henry Lea’s A History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages. Vol. 1. (1888). The witch-finders hunted women who were suspected of practicing witchcraft. When they found them, they terrorized them and tortured them to confess with false promises that they would be spared if they confessed. When they did confess it was then a different matter—because it rested in the hands of the judge who would take the confessions as proof of their crimes against the Church. The punishment was invariably the painful death of being burned alive.
This happened in Medieval Europe about 1,000 years ago. It is ironical that a similar practice in the form of a law was passed a thousand years later by the modern state of Texas in the United States in 2022, albeit not dealing with witchcraft. It had to do with abortion. The anti-abortion law of Texas gives the right to anyone to report to the government against any woman or a physician who terminates pregnancy. Texas bans abortions at all stages of pregnancy, unless the mother has a life-threatening medical emergency. The law does not provide exceptions even in the case of rape or incest. Like the Witch-finders of Medieval Europe, those who report an abortion are entitled to collect 10 thousand dollars, which provides a strong incentive. Like the Witch-finders, they became ‘Abortion-Hunters.’
Beauty as Power
I suggested a connection between witchcraft and abortion because they are both related to a woman’s body. Now let me return to the theme of beauty which too is often related to a woman’s body. Many cultures have their own concept of female physical beauty—some like it slim and some like it fat. But they all center around how a woman should look. In a short essay it is not possible to discuss the concept of beauty in many different cultures. Since I am most familiar with the South Asian culture, let me cite one or two examples from Hindu mythology. The common and famous story comes from the Mahābhārata where Viswamitra—a great sage who took a vow to conquer Indra’s heaven with his spiritual powers—sat to meditate for many years. As Indra’s royal throne in heaven shook with Vishwamitra’s austerities, Indra, afraid of losing his power, immediately dispatched Menaka, one of his most beautiful heavenly Apsarā (damsel), to go to earth to foil Vishwamitra’s meditation. Here I quote a passage from my upcoming article which relates to the power of beauty and sexual allure.
“Rishi Viswamitra’s austerities are well-known. This mortified Indra, the King of Gods and the Sacker of Cities.[2] Viswamitra’s puissance had been set ablaze by his austerities that Indra was bound to be toppled from his throne. Fearing for his welfare, Indra summoned Menaka, his most beautiful and seductive Apsarā (heavenly damsel). In the Ādi Parva of the Mahābhārata where the story appears, Indra orders Menaka with the following directives:
Menaka, you are distinguished in the divine talents of the Apsarās. Take my welfare to heart, beautiful woman, and do as I ask you. Listen. That great Viswamitra, who possesses splendor of the sun, has been performing awesome austerities that make my mind tremble. Menaka of the pretty waist, please go to him and seduce him before he topples me from my throne. Obstruct his asceticism by seducing with your beauty, youth, sweetness, fondling, smiles and flatteries, my buxom girl, and turn him away from his austerities.[3] (fig. 4)
From the above narrative, it is clear that Menaka was charged with derailing Viswamitra from his path of attaining yogic powers. It is also clear that Indra uses sex as a weapon to achieve his goal through the help of a woman. Here a woman is used as an instrument to carry out a man’s bidding.”[4]
This story amply implies that some women possess a strong weapon—the power to seduce. To verify this, we do not have to go into mythological times or even ancient world history, Greek or Roman. We can look into our own time where male spiritual leaders and politicians have fallen from grace as a consequence of sexual scandals with women. We read it in newspapers and watch it on television news. At times of war, young and beautiful women were recruited as spies to extract sensitive information from enemies by any means, including seduction leading to sex. Menaka was not only beautiful, alluring and voluptuous, but also an expert in the art of seduction like the modern female spy.[5] With her bodily charm, she was successful in her mission. She bore a daughter with Vishwamitra, thus bringing the chapter to a close.
Unlike today, the beauty described in many of the ancient Hindu and Buddhist texts was based not only on physical appearance of a woman which is fleshy with large breasts, ample hips, narrow waist—but she also possesses graceful gait, beautiful demeanor, sweet smiles and large dreamy eyes. South Asian art of the Medieval Period is full of images of such women. Some notable women who were beautiful have gained the upper hand and have used their body for manipulating men. Ravana, the king of Lanka, fell madly in love with Sita, the wife of Rama, and abducted her. That act resulted in a war in which the adductor killed. Similarly, Paris, the prince of Troy, eloped with beautiful Helen, the wife of Spartan King Menelaos, which became the cause of the Trojan War in which Paris was killed.
Beauty is power and power also brings destruction as we saw in the case with Menaka, Sita and Helen. The same trope is also seen in the Old Testament in the story of Samson and Delilah in which the seductive Delilah becomes the cause of Samson’s downfall. In every case, the woman of beauty has tragically caused destruction.
Oppression and Class Distinction
In ancient state of Kerala in South India, class distinction between the rich and the poor was indicated by what they did and what they wore. Because the poor worked in the field and in the street, they wore dirty and tattered clothes. Women were required to go topless exposing their breasts.[6] Breasts of older women were not objects of attraction or eroticism. However, the supple and firm breasts of young girls and women were a different matter. They brought erotic desires on men of higher classes. Going topless immediately identified them as people belonging to a lower class who could be sexually taken advantage of with impunity. Ironically, depicting some Hindu and Buddhist goddesses and demi-goddesses topless has a different connotation. Here it is done to emphasize their beauty. By doing so the ancient culture has elevated them as someone special. They are not seen as sex objects.
(figs. 5, 6)
While the women in South India in ancient times felt shame exposing their breasts, artists labored to present goddesses as voluptuously as possible as a way of creating beauty in a woman so that a man would hope for a wife like that. In both cases—the real life and mythology—ample and firm breasts become a double-edged sword. They are seen as both beautiful and shameful. women who went around topless felt vulnerable and unprotected because they were exposed. On the other hand, the naked goddesses were elevated by putting them on a pedestal. As images of gods, they were beyond reach and hence untouchable. A double standard, nonetheless.
Nudity is a form of subjugation making a woman feel exposed and vulnerable. When a woman is naked and is suddenly confronted by a man, she immediately covers her private parts. This is seen as a natural response if she is not a performer or a sex-worker. However, Hindu-Buddhist works of art of ancient and Medieval times show otherwise. The Sanchi and the Didargunj Yakshis display their physical beauty proudly (figs. 7 and 8)
Hinduism considers Nature (Prakriti) as female. As a female, she is matter; she is also a wave in the sea. She is the cause of many manifestations on earth. After Shiva and Parvati married, the god Shiva dedicated a hymn in her honor. In the hymn Shiva compares him with his other half in this way:
I am the sea and you the wave,
You are Prakriti, and I Purusha.[7]
Artists, no matter where they live, have expressed beauty through their works. We saw a few examples of art from South Asia. Throughout history, the same beauty can be found in other parts of the world. A particular example that I would like to present here comes from Japan during the Edo Period (1603 and 1867). The art of woodblock print, popularly known as Ukiyo-e. It was developed and in fact it thrived because artists used Bijenja (beautiful women) as their models. Many famous artists like Hokusai and Utamaro focused on the beauty of these women called Oiran, high class courtesans.[8] (fig. 9).
And finally, we come to the American popular culture of Cheerleaders. These beautiful young girls/ladies are the modern version of ancient Apsarās, the heavenly damsels who entertained gods and now as human beings, in a large sport stadium, they entertain thousands of sports fans during the half-time of a game, especially a Super Bowl. (fig.10)
The Hindu idea of beauty is actually defined by the maxim called Satyam Shivam Sundaram which means Truth is Beauty as manifested by the Supreme with three guṇas or qualities satva, rajas and tamas. When the three qualities are perfectly balanced, the true beauty is revealed. Hence, according to this, beauty goes beyond the physical body. The truth is found in nakedness. When a child is just born it looks so beautiful without any coverings. The nakedness seen in the images of gods and goddesses is, therefore, that purity which is connotated by Satyam Shivam Sundaram.
[1] While in Turkey, I visited Sultan’s harem in Topkapi Palace, Istanbul. It was not a fable but a reality to see the elaborate system and a huge place to house some 500 concubines.
[2] J.A.B van Buitenen, The Mahābhārata, Book I, p. 161.
[3] Ibid.
[4] Soon to be published.
[5] A story seems appropriate to share here because it is related to the art of seduction. My next door neighbor was a British lady, who passed away in 1995. She was in her 80s, but was beautiful, charming and gregarious. Very observant about the things I did around the house. When confronted one day about her keen observation, she confessed that she was a British spy during World War II. I could imagine how she must have looked in the prime of her youth. She must been a stunning woman able to seek information from the enemy using her charm and the art of seduction. In my home she was named Menaka.
[6] Kent, Eliza.F. (2004), Gender and Protestant Christianity in Colonial South India, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/0195165071.001.0001, ISBN 9780195165074
[7] Stella Kramrisch (1975), The Indian Great Goddess, History of Religions, Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 235–265.
[8] They were later, especially during the 18th and 19th centuries, referred to as Geisha, a prostitute. Later yet, they were demoted to Yujo, an ordinary prostitute. Regardless of the title or profession, they went all out to make them look beautiful by applying heavy make-up and wearing an expensive Kimono.